Interlanguage theory revolutionized our understanding of how people learn second languages by recognizing that learners develop their own systematic language system that is neither their native language nor the target language. This insight has far-reaching implications for language teaching and learning.
Understanding Interlanguage Systems
The language L2 learners produce is not simply a collection of errors but rather a structured linguistic system with its own patterns and rules. When students say things like “*She can plays piano” or “*I no like coffee,” they are not making random mistakes – they are using systematic rules they have developed in their interlanguage.
What Is Interlanguage
Interlanguage is a systematic and autonomous linguistic system learners develop when they attempt to communicate meaningfully in a second language they are learning. This system is distinct from the learner’s native and target language, containing its own patterns and rules at all linguistic levels – phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics.
Key Characteristics
Systematic Nature
The interlanguage system is not a random collection of errors but rather a structured linguistic system with its own internal logic and patterns. Learners develop this system gradually as they test hypotheses about the target language.
Autonomy
While influenced by both the native language and target language, interlanguage exists as its own independent system. It is neither a direct transfer from the first language nor an imperfect version of the target language.
Developmental Nature
Interlanguage represents a transitional linguistic system that evolves as learners progress in language acquisition. This development occurs through various cognitive processes, including language transfer, overgeneralization of target language rules, and learning strategies.
Unconscious Processing
The development and use of interlanguage typically occur unconsciously, with learners often unaware of the specific linguistic rules they are applying. When asked to explain their language use, learners may cite formal rules learned in class rather than the actual rules governing their spontaneous communication.
Fossilization
A crucial aspect of interlanguage is its tendency to fossilize – to stop developing before reaching target language norms. This phenomenon explains why many adult learners maintain certain non-native features in their language production even after years of exposure and practice.
Fossilization is more complex than simply “getting stuck” at a certain level. Key characteristics include:
- Fossilized forms reemerge under stress or when attention is focused on new difficult content
- They can affect both “errors” and correct forms
- They operate across all linguistic levels – phonology, morphology, syntax, and pragmatics
Key Processes in Interlanguage Development
Language Transfer
Learners draw on their native language knowledge when learning a new language. For example, Japanese speakers may avoid using relative clauses in English because Japanese uses a different word order for these structures.
Language transfer occurs in complex ways that go beyond simple first language interference. The mentioned Japanese speakers may avoid relative clauses in English not only because of L1 interference, but because they perceive the entire structure as too risky for communication. This avoidance strategy itself becomes part of their interlanguage system.
Overgeneralization
Learners often extend target language rules too broadly. A classic example is applying the regular past tense “-ed” to irregular verbs, producing forms like “*goed” and “*drinked”.
Communication Strategies
When faced with gaps in their knowledge, learners develop strategies to get their meaning across. They might use approximations, descriptions, or even create new words.
Practical Implications for Teachers
Assessment Approach
Rather than seeing errors as failures, teachers should view them as windows into their students’ developing language systems. This allows for more effective diagnosis of learning needs.
Teachers should recognize that errors reveal developmental stages rather than just mistakes. For example, when students consistently produce forms like “*goed” or “*drinked”, this indicates they have internalized the regular past tense rule.
Teaching Methods
- Focus on meaningful communication rather than just mechanical drills
- Provide opportunities for natural language use
- Address fossilized errors through targeted practice
- Create a supportive environment where students feel comfortable taking risks
- Design syllabi based on natural acquisition sequences (discussed Research Evidence below)
Curriculum Planning
Understanding that learners follow natural developmental sequences helps teachers set realistic expectations and design appropriate syllabi. For instance, expecting perfect mastery of the third person singular “-s” in early stages is unrealistic since this feature typically develops later.
Preventing Fossilization
While some aspects of learners’ interlanguage may fossilize (stop developing), teachers can help prevent this by:
- Providing rich input in meaningful contexts
- Creating authentic communication opportunities
- Giving targeted feedback on persistent errors
- Encouraging continued language development beyond basic communicative competence
Research Evidence
Studies have shown clear developmental sequences in areas like:
Negation Development
- External negation (“No this one”)
- Internal pre-verbal (“I no like”)
- Auxiliary + negation (“I can’t play”)
- Analyzed forms (“She doesn’t drink”)
Question Formation
- Rising intonation
- Uninverted WH-questions
- Overinversion
- Full differentiation
Understanding these sequences helps teachers set realistic expectations and design more effective instruction that works with, rather than against, learners’ natural developmental processes.
Summing up, interlanguage represents a creative process where learners actively construct their own linguistic system. This system is neither the first language nor the target language but a unique and systematic intermediate stage that evolves as learning progresses.
Interlanguage theory guides teachers to recognize that errors are not just problems to be eliminated but natural steps in the learning process. This insight leads to more effective and empathetic language teaching approaches that work with, rather than against, learners’ natural language development processes.
Core Theoretical Works
- Selinker, L. (1972). Interlanguage. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 10, 209-231.
- Corder, S.P. (1967). The significance of learners’ errors. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 5, 161-170.
- Tarone, E. (2018). Interlanguage. The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics.
Research Studies and Applications
- Frith, M.B. (1977). Second language learning: A study of form and function at two stages of developing interlanguages. Indiana University Linguistics Club.
- Lavoie, K.G. (2003). The processes involved in the formation of interlanguage. TESL Journal.
- Richards, J.C. (1971). A non-contrastive approach to error analysis. Journal of ELT.
Practical Teaching Applications
- Burt, M. and Kiparsky, C. (1972). The Gooficon: A repair manual for English. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
- Holley, F. and King, J.K. (1974). Imitation and correction in foreign language learning. In J. Schumann & N. Stenson (Eds.), New Frontiers in Second Language Learning.
- Richards, J. and Sampson, G. (1974). The study of learner English. In J. Richards (Ed.), Error Analysis: Perspectives in Second Language Acquisition.
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